Introduction

This information kit provides an overview of climate change and its impact on African farmers. First, it briefly explains the science of climate change. Then it describes the effects of climate change in Africa, particularly in areas reliant on agriculture. Next, it discusses the vital role that radio plays in providing clear communication and information about climate change to farmers. The kit then provides examples of ways farmers can adapt to climate change. These examples are meant to serve as starting points to develop original radio scripts, and do not in any way capture all existing strategies. Finally, we provide a list of organizations and further reading on climate change.

Our hope is that radio organizations will be inspired to discover both the kinds of climate change adaptation challenges that are being faced by farmers in their areas, and some solutions that could be shared with farmers via radio.

Climate Change: The Science

The three major greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. Less important greenhouse gases include water vapour, ozone, halocarbons and other industrial gases. Except for the industrial gases, these gases occur naturally. They are called “greenhouse gases” because their presence in the earth’s atmosphere traps heat from the sun and makes the earth inhabitable. Without these greenhouse gases, temperatures on earth would be 30 degrees cooler, since all the energy from the sun would simply be reflected back into space.

Recent human activities have increased the levels of greenhouse gases in the earth’s atmosphere. For example, burning fossil fuels - coal, natural gas and oil - and cutting down trees releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Methane and nitrous oxide are released from agricultural activities, while other greenhouse gases are produced and released from industrial activities and vehicle exhaust fumes.

With the worldwide increase in meat consumption, it is predicted that greenhouse gas emissions from livestock will rise sharply. Currently, livestock are responsible for 65% of human-induced emissions of nitrous oxide and 37% of human-induced emissions of methane, globally. Methane is a by-product of animal metabolism, while nitrous oxide emissions to the atmosphere occur when excess nitrogen fertilizer not taken up by plants is emitted as a gas or leaves the field through leaching to the water table or as runoff.

Higher levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere - particularly carbon dioxide - are resulting in a stronger “greenhouse effect” and thus global warming. Over the next 100 years, it is predicted that world temperatures will rise between 1.4 and 5.8 degrees Celsius. This warming trend will have a significant impact on the earth’s climate. Temperatures have already risen by 0.6ºC since the early1900s. As temperatures rise, humans and the environment are faced with numerous challenges, including rising sea levels, changing weather patterns, and more frequent extreme weather events.

Climate Change in Africa

Scientists who study the earth’s climate find it difficult to predict exactly how climate change will affect the African continent. There simply isn’t enough information to make precise or reliable predictions. However, they are confident that the climate in Africa will become more variable and that rising temperatures will cause rainfall patterns to change. Over the next 50 years, it is likely to become drier in the northern and southern parts of the continent and wetter in the tropics. However, there will be significant regional variations. Also, the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as floods, droughts and dust storms are likely to increase. Sea-level rise will threaten low-lying areas of West Africa by causing erosion and flooding. Higher water levels and increased ocean temperatures will also have a negative impact on coastal fisheries.

Impact on People, Agriculture and Development

Climate change affects people differently, depending on their livelihoods and where they live. In many cases, it is the most vulnerable groups in society - those reliant on natural resources for subsistence - that will be the most affected and for whom effective coping strategies are urgent.

When temperatures rise, moisture evaporates more quickly from the earth’s surface, drying air and soil. As the air and soil become drier, crop production is affected. Crop production will also be affected by an increase in the frequency of extreme weather events and by longer growing seasons in cool areas. It is estimated that climate change will reduce crop yields by an average of 10 per cent over the whole of Africa, with greater reductions in certain areas. For example, there could be a 33% reduction in maize yields in Tanzania. In Sudan, millet production could decrease between 20% and 76% and sorghum production between 13% and 82%.

Warmer temperatures and changing rainfall patterns are also expected to increase the prevalence of vector-borne diseases that affect humans and livestock. For example, over the last few years, malaria has increased in the highlands of Rwanda and Tanzania. Rift Valley fever, also linked with heavy rainfall, may also increase.

Climate change will likely mean decreased water security. It is estimated that, by 2050, rainfall in Africa will have declined by 5% and become more variable. There will be large economic costs associated with damage from floods, droughts and other extreme weather events. Other impacts include increased desertification, added stress on water resources, and decreased biodiversity. Coastal communities will be at risk from flooding, while mass migration to non-flooded areas could result in conflict.

Importance of Communication and Information in Climate Change Adaptation

African farmers can prepare for and adapt to the negative effects of climate change only if they understand it and know its impacts. While many farmers already use strategies to cope with varying conditions, as weather becomes less predictable, some of these strategies may no longer work. Previously effective strategies may require additional information in order to remain of value. Effective communication approaches are critical to help farmers adapt to climate change.

Radio is the most effective way to reach African farmers and to allow them to communicate their knowledge and experience. While there is a great deal of information available on climate change, most is not aimed at a farming audience. The challenge for radio broadcasters is to ensure that their audience understands climate change messages and finds them relevant. For example, it may be more useful to ask a farmer about changing weather patterns or how she has changed the crops she grows than to ask her how she is coping with climate change. Radio can also encourage communities to assess local problems and identify local solutions to climate change. Communities can be encouraged to establish action plans to reduce their vulnerability.

Plenty of research in Africa and on other continents is testing methods for farmers to adapt to climate change. Some research looks at the traditional approaches farmers have relied on for centuries, while other projects test new methods. Radio organizations can play an important role in publicizing these research results and transforming them into programs that their audiences can understand and use. Also, by interviewing local farmers, radio organizations can pass on information on how farmers from different communities adapt to droughts, improve soil fertility, select which crops to grow, and other innovations.

Radio programs that ask farmers about the impacts of climate change can provide researchers with insight into what is happening at the field level and encourage communication between researchers and farmers. These discussions can then result in adaptation strategies that combine traditional and scientific knowledge.

Examples of Coping Strategies

The scriptwriting contest accepts scripts whose theme falls into one of five categories of climate change adaptation: water and soil management, using drought-resistant plants, livestock management practices, fisheries and agroforestry, and other strategies.

The following section presents examples of coping strategies for each of these five themes. It then provides links to DCFRN scripts and audio programs produced by CTA which focus on these strategies. DCFRN scripts are available on line at http://www.farmradio.org/english/radio-scripts/, while CTA radio programs are available at http://ruralradio.cta.int/index.html.

Water and soil management

Water scarcity already affects more than a third of the world’s population, and climate change will worsen this situation. Practical solutions for managing water in crop and livestock production include the water harvesting techniques traditionally practiced in West and North Africa. Farmers in these areas are skilled in diverting water into areas with field and tree crops. In regions where increased rainfall and flooding are a problem, crop varieties such as waterproof rice which can survive submerged for up to two weeks are being developed (traditional varieties die when submersed for three days).
Practices to protect soil fertility include zero or reduced tillage, and using fertilizer micro-dosing. Zero tillage conserves soil and water, resulting in greater yields. Micro-dosing is the practice of applying small quantities of inorganic fertilizers in planting holes. This is an improvement on recommended practices - in many cases recommended doses of fertilizer are too expensive for most farmers and increase the risk of soil acidification.

Other adaptation strategies include:

• Mixed cropping (rather than monocropping)
• Minimizing bush burning
• Constructing contour bunds around farmlands to prevent erosion and flooding
• Recycling water
• Enacting and enforcing laws to protect streams and rivers
• Water storage

Many DCFRN scripts describe these adaptation strategies (all scripts are available at http://www.farmradio.org/english/radio-scripts/numerical.asp):

• 76.2 Is tillage really necessary? The benefits of Conservation Agriculture
• 61.6 Dr. Compost talks about compost piles
• 61.4 Farmers and scientists harvest rainwater in India
• 58.2 Improve rice yields without buying fertilizer
• 55.9 Trees and terraces prevent hillside flooding
• 54.7 Catch rain from your roof
• 54.5 Save soil on hillside plots
• 54.3 Garden while you shower
• 50.7 Stop soil erosion with living plant barriers
• 50.2 Farming for the future: some practical methods
• 47.8 Making something with nothing: the rubbish garden
• 44.3 Cross-ridging holds precious rainwater on the land
• 43.5 A woman farmer fallows with trees
• 33.9 Where to find compost materials

CTA audio programs that focus on water and soil management are:

• Conserving soils and water A co-ordinator for Zambia’s Programme Against Malnutrition explains methods of conservation farming which can help to conserve both soil moisture and nutrients in areas experiencing dry spells.
• Responding to drought in Malawi A senior agricultural officer describes the steps being taken by the extension services in Malawi to enable farmers overcome the challenge of drought.

Using drought-resistant plants

As the climate becomes warmer, farmers need crops and crop varieties that tolerate heat and drought. Some crops - such as barley, cassava, millet and sorghum - have been used by farmers in dry lands for many years. Farmers familiar with these crops have much expertise in this area. Other crops are being improved through plant breeding. Examples include drought-tolerant maize, early maturing maize for regions with short rainy seasons, and the drought-tolerant rice varieties known as NERICA (New Rices for Africa). NERICA varieties combine the high productivity of Asian rice with the ability of African rice to cope with harsh conditions. NERICA varieties for rainfed uplands are being tested in 30 African countries.

Related adaptation strategies include:

• Growing salt-tolerant crops or varieties where soil is contaminated with salt.
• Growing heat-tolerant crops
• Growing cassava where rains are uncertain (cassava can be stored in the ground for up to 24 months before being harvested)

Relevant CTA audio programs and DCFRN scripts on this topic are:

• Adaptive farming to reduce risk . A researcher from an international crop research institute in Nairobi explains how new crop varieties are helping farmers to adapt what they plant to suit variable rainfall patterns.
• 73.3 Choosing crops for drought-prone areas
• 67.2 “Survival” crops provide food during times of need
• 58.10 My friend the dependable sweet potato
• 58.7 The advantages of growing and using finger millet
• 54.9 These crops will help you through the drought
• 44.8 The many uses of the prickly pear cactus

Livestock management practices

Because of climate change, livestock farmers will be under increased pressure to find adequate water and forage for their animals, while coping with increasing disease problems. Conflict between pastoralists and crop growers is also likely to increase as available resources decrease. Researchers at the international research centre CIAT select and promote drought-tolerant grass and legume species as livestock forage. For example, Cratylia, a leguminous shrub, is drought-tolerant and widely recognized for improving animal nutrition.

Adaptation strategies include:

• Reducing livestock density
• Changing the mix of browsers and grazers
• Restoring degraded areas

Related CTA audio programs and DCFRN scripts include:

• Zimbabwe’s dryland research station. A crops specialist and a livestock specialist from the Matopos research station describe technologies being developed to support smallholder farmers experiencing drought.
• 64.3 Protect your livestock in times of emergency
• 51.8 A fodder hedge provides feed for cattle in the dry season

Fisheries and Agroforestry

Climate change could drastically affect fisheries and aquaculture, the main sources of animal protein for a billion people worldwide. Increasing sea temperatures already cause significant damage to coral reefs, which are prime fish breeding habitats. Rising sea levels will also damage or destroy wild fish stocks and fish-bearing ponds in coastal areas. There is a need for more research to develop adaptation strategies for the fisheries sector. Agroforestry strategies help to counteract the pressures of deforestation by allowing planned harvests of both food and fuel from the same field. Agroforestry species are typically multi-use trees, which can provide timber for construction, medicines, livestock feed, windbreaks and other uses, besides food and fuel.

Known adaptation strategies include:

• Developing new fish harvesting technologies
• Planting multi-use trees

Relevant DCFRN scripts:

• 74.9 Choose the right trees to grow with crops
• 74.6 Kenyan farmer treasures the calliandra tree
• 74.5 Trees provide fodder for livestock
• 74.3 “When it rains”: The role of trees in preventing soil erosion
• 58.4 Growing maize with trees
• 55.7 A farmer turns wasteland into rainforest
• 55.1 Choose the right trees to grow with crops
• 54.2 How trees store water and protect springs
• 54.1 Trees and rain
• 35.10 Raise fish in the rice paddy
• 35.9 Fish are good for your rice and good for you
• 27.2 Trees in your garden give you fertilizer

Other adaptation strategies

Coping With Extreme Weather Events:

Short-term weather forecasts - including cyclone and flood prediction - can not only save lives and property during extreme weather events, but can also help farmers decide when to plant and harvest crops. Medium-term or seasonal weather predictions allow farmers to prepare for famine or disease outbreaks and help them decide which crops or varieties to plant.

If your area is vulnerable to storms, hurricanes, typhoons and floods:

• Establish tree cover to protect coastal regions
• Plant crops - such as root vegetables - that are least vulnerable to strong winds
• Avoid using slash and burn methods to clear land
• Establish grass barriers on hillsides
• Keep land covered with vegetation or mulch at all times
• Use recommended planting material to establish windbreaks

Related CTA audio programs and DCFRN scripts include:

• Understanding leads to change . A senior agricultural extension officer for Matabeleland North province in Zimbabwe describes how the extension service is helping farmers to cope with less reliable rainfall.
• A clearer picture of change. A climate expert from the UK discusses how improved understanding and information about changing weather patterns in Africa should improve the response of governments and people.
• 75.5 Farmers have important knowledge about weather and environmental change - Part I: Learning about local signs of drought
• 75.6 Farmers have important knowledge about weather and environmental change - Part II: Preparing for drought
• 58.11 Grow and eat nutritious yams
• 58.5 Grow your own fertilizer: Plant cover crops with maize
• 50.4 Farmers in Nicaragua challenge El Niño
• 44.9 Save soil on sloping land
• 44.2 Windbreaks protect crops and soil
• 43.3 Prevent erosion - plant vetiver grass
• 34.1 More with mulch

Pest and Diseases

As the weather changes, patterns of insect infestation will also change. Highland areas may experience new pests, pest populations may grow in areas with increased rainfall, and crops in drying areas may be more vulnerable to pest damage. In changing conditions, it is even more important to follow the basic principles of integrated pest management: understanding pest life cycles and host plants, treating pests when they are most vulnerable, using least-toxic approaches, and planting tolerant or resistant varieties.

Other strategies include:

• Using “trap crops”
• Using biological control methods

Relevant DCFRN scripts include:

• 72.4 Reduce pests naturally with biological pest control
• 61.11 Dealing with rats
• 52.3 What is integrated pest management?
• 45.8 Understanding plant diseases - Part one
• 45.9 Understanding plant diseases - Part two

Alternative energy

In order for people to meet their energy needs and to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels, alternative energy sources such as biofuels might be a solution, although it is important to ensure that production of biofuel crops does not negatively impact on family and community food security.

Relevant DCFRN scripts include:

• 80.7 Jatropha - Not Just a Biofuel Crop!
• 76.5 An alternative fuel source: Make charcoal briquettes from banana peels
• 50.3 Choose energy sources wisely
• 40.6 Use the sun to cook your food

Social/community responses

Many climate change adaptation approaches require collective action. Communities may already have collective strategies for coping with climate change. For instance, in parts of the Sahel when families face resource scarcity, women and children migrate to stay with relatives not affected by drought. The capacity of communities to cope will likely be strengthened if they plan and identify priorities related to climate change.

Related adaptation strategies include

• Community preparedness for extreme weather events
• Microcredit and safety nets
• Lobbying for local, regional and national policies that support farmers’ adaptation to climate change
• Community reforestation projects

Related DCFRN scripts:

• 78.6 - Community Reforestation Brings Back the Rains in the Brong Ahafo Region of Ghana
• 64.8 - Your community group can help in times of disaster
• 62.7 A community revives a traditional method of grain storage

On-line Resources

Organizations involved in climate change in Africa and around the world

• International Development Research Centre (IDRC) - http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-94424-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html
• United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) - http://www.unep.org/themes/climatechange/
• CGIAR - http://www.cgiar.org/impact/global/climate.html
• International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) http://www.iied.org/
• International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) http://www.iisd.org/
• Nigerian Environmental Study/Action Team (NEST) http://www.nestinteractive.org/

National Reports and Adaptation Plans

• National Adaptation Programmes of Action: A number of developing countries have drawn up National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs). The NAPAs allow identification of priority activities that respond to immediate needs and concerns for adaptation to climate change. They build upon existing coping strategies at the grassroots level and promote the use of relevant traditional knowledge and practice. To see which countries have NAPAs visit http://unfccc.int/adaptation/napas/items/2679.php

• National reports can be found at http://unfccc.int/national_reports/items/1408.php

On-line resources for radio organizations

• General Information

DFID Key Sheets on Climate Change and Poverty
http://www.dfid.gov.uk/pubs/files/climatechange/keysheetsindex.asp

 

SciDev.Net Home > Dossiers Home > Climate Change
http://www.scidev.net/dossiers/index.cfm?fuseaction=dossierItem&Dossier=4

 

http://www.greenfacts.org/studies/climate_change/

 

http://www.grida.no/climate/vitalafrica/english/evidence.htm

 

New Scientist: http://www.newscientist.com/hottopics/climate/ and http://www.newscientist.com/hottopics/climate/climatetimeline.jsp
http://www.newscientist.com/hottopics/climate/climatefaq.jsp

 

Global Climate Change Student Information Guide: http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/resources/gcc/

 

Woods Hole Research Center:
http://www.whrc.org/globalwarming/warmingearth.htm Introduction to Global Warming

• Networks, Institutes, and Portals focused on climate change

IIED — TIEMPO http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/tiempo/

 

Climate Change Knowledge Network (IISD) - guides, country studies, etc. http://www.cckn.net/

 

Climate Change Science–Hadley Centre, UK http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/hadleycentre/ Extensive information on observations and potential impacts.

 

Pew Center on Climate Change: http://www.pewclimate.org/

 

http://www.climateark.org/

• Policy and Scientific reports

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) http://www.ipcc.ch/

 

References

 

Africa - Up in Smoke 2: The second report on Africa and global warming from the Working Group on Climate Change and Development. http://www.iied.org/pubs/display.php?o=10018IIED

 

Ayuba, 2007. Climate Change Adaptation in Africa: Its Implications and Socio-economic Prospects for Farmers in the sub-Sahelian Agro-ecological Zone of Nigeria

 

British Broadcasting Corporation, March 20, 2006. Climate link to African malaria. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4827362.stm

 

CGIAR, Adapting Agricultural Systems to Climate Change. http://www.cgiar.org/impact/global/cc_adaptingagrsystems.html

 

CTA, (Technical Centre for Agriculture and Rural Cooperation ACP-EU), 2007.
Coping with Climate Change. ICT Update, #35, January 2007. http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/(issue)/35

 

DCFRN, 2002. How Farmers Can Adapt to a Changing Climate. http://farmradio.org/english/radio-scripts/64-1script_en.asp

 

DFID, 2004. Adaptation to climate change: The right information can help the poor to cope. http://www.dfid.gov.uk/pubs/files/climatechange/7information.pdf

 

DFID, 2004. Climate change in Africa. http://www.dfid.gov.uk/pubs/files/climatechange/10africa.pdf

 

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2005. Gender - the missing component in the response to climate change. http://www.fao.org/sd/dim_pe1/docs/pe1_051001d1b.pdf

 

International Development Research Institute (IDRC), undated. Climate Change Adaptation in Africa at the UN Climate Change Conference http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-97956-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html

 

International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), 2006. How Will Agriculture Adapt to a Shifting Climate? IFPRI Forum, #17, December 2006. http://www.ifpri.org/pubs/newsletters/ifpriforum/if17.pdf

 

Lunganda, Patrick 2007. Media can help fight climate change. Sci.Dev.Net website at http://www.scidev.net/Opinions/index.cfm?fuseaction=readOpinions&itemid=563&language=1

 

New Agriculturalist on-line. Tropical tuberous crops: getting to the root of the problem. http://www.new-agri.co.uk/00-3/focuson/focuson8.html

 

UNEP, Climate Change Information Sheet. http://www.unep.org/Themes/climatechange/PDF/infokit2003-E.pdf

 

Wikipedia entry on “climate change”. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change#Livestock

 

Wong, Piya and Michelle Picard-Aitken, 2007. IPCC - We have the Means to Fight Climate Change. Sci.Dev.Net website at http://www.scidev.net/News/index.cfm?fuseaction=readnews&itemid=3602&language=1